Role of Vision at Mentor Graphics Research Paper

Role of Vision at Mentor Graphics - Research Paper Example Mentor Graphics in its quest to keep up lost its direction and ended up struggling to stay afloat. In the process Mentor Graphics lost sight of what it had set out to achieve. Vision is being used as a competitive mantra to beat their opponents. This was a reactionary measure when a new entrant came into the scene. In changing its vision because of competition, Mentor Graphics was focusing on its short term goals and in essence abandoning its long-term goals. Instead of using vision as an agent would strategically bring about change, Mentor Graphics used change as an architect of its vision. This is simply catastrophic at the very least and non-strategic. Another way vision is used is to capture the attention of its customer. Gerard Langeler and his team change their vision to make it more appealing to them. Again this is a deviation from its set objectives. Mentor Graphics even goes as far as basing their vision on the key pillars of their business based on stock performance. This random uncalculated move sank them into a quagmire situation when one of their key pillars does not yield profits. Again this is a reactionary move necessitated by the need to fix a short-term goal (Gratton, 2004). The vicious cycle of randomly conceived visions serves only to cast the company further away from their goals. The changes made to the vision of Mentor Graphics only favored it in the short term. Whilst its sales may have gone up in the short run, in the long run it distanced the company from its set out objectives hence business kept declining (Gratton,2004) .Thus the continuous changes made to the vision only worked to weaken and hurt the company in its long term goals. The main reason why vision failed miserably at Mentor Graphics was lack of a well-conceived strategy from the start. The company failed in strategically planning its course of action in the future. Their inconsistence in the criteria they used to come up with vision statements had long-term

The Simmons Hall Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Simmons Hall - Case Study Example The building stands 10 stories or 100 feet high, 385 feet long, and 53 feet deep. The building is wrapped almost entirely in a matrix of 2-foot-square windows, 5,538 of them to be exact (Ryan 2004). Huge gaps that double as terraces separate Simmons Hall's three aluminum towers. Volcano-shaped lounges push through the floors (Nasr 2007). The exoskeleton of the building is formed by a gridded shell, composed of precast concrete wall panels, called Perfcon ("Projects" 2003).The facades appear as flush blades of aluminium eaten into by several large cuts. In silhouette, it interacts with the sky behind. At a radically different scale, it is punctured by small, square and deep apertures that illuminate the interior without revealing each room's exact position or size. Where gable portions are eroded, upper sections of the building project forward dramatically (Ryan 2004). Internally, the building is as complex as its exterior. Wide corridors connect the dorm rooms and the building's amenities: dining, fitness center and a theater, among other facilities. Eight atria connect the floors vertically in a manner more flowing than rigid, contrasting the regimented exterior ("A Weekly Dose," Archidose.org 2007). The Simmons' Hall building uses a visual effect to look bigger t

National Brands And Private Labels

National Brands And Private Labels Different peer reviewed articles and articles published in newspapers, business magazines, retail industry websites and industry experts, test a hypothesis and to draw a conclusion. Findings: The findings from the study suggest that private labels are generally considered low on price and quality. Incidence of rejection generally happens prior to purchase due to extrinsic cues. Store loyalty and image plays a crucial role in selecting the private labels. Retailers derive higher margins, differentiate themselves from competitors and have better control over value chain in the case of private labels. To compete with national brands, retailers these days are developing a portfolio of private labels across price points, improving the extrinsic cues to improve the perceived image of private labels. Managers can enhance consumers perception of the PLB image by improving the service quality that relates to the PLB and provide PLB products with good quality and reliable performance safe for use to reduce perceived performance risk and physical risk, which in turn will increase consumers purchase intention for PLB products. INTRODUCTION: Private Labels: Private labels are defined as the products owned and branded by the organizations whose primary objective is distribution rather than production (Schutte, 1969). Private labels can also be seen as brands owned not by a manufacturer or producer but by a retailer or supplier who gets its goods made by a contract manufacturer under its own label. Pandya Joshi, in their book define store brands or PLs as brands owned, controlled and sold exclusively by retailer.Private label products encompass all merchandize sold under a retailers brand. That brand can be the retailers own name or a name created exclusively by that retailer. Distinction between National-Brands and Private Labels: The national brand is the product that is distributed nationally under a brand name owned by the producer or distributor, as opposed to local brands (products distributed only in some areas of the country), and private label brands (products that carry the brand of the retailer rather than the producer.) National Brands has longer history than the Private Label. So customer knowledge towards the national brand is higher than private labels. With the rise of national advertising, manufacturers brands or national brands (NBs) became widely recognized by consumers who elected their preferred brands and became loyal to them. Over time, manufacturers could exercise greater influence over the final demand for their products and secured a better bargaining position when dealing with retailers (Grant 1987). Retailers saw their margins drastically reduced, and their power to determine the prices to consumers depreciated (Borden 1967). In the food retailing industry, supermarket chains were no longer able to compete, solely, on the basis of price. A way found by retailers to beat competition was through the establishment of Private Label. TYPES OF PRIVATE LABEL Generic private labels Private labels first came onto the scene several decades ago in the US and Europe, and about a decade ago in India, as cheap, inferior products. They were presented as generics, often not bearing the name of the retailer, but simply the name of the product, such as milk or butter, in plain script on a white plain background. Mostly basic food products, canned goods and paper goods, they were offered at low prices, competitive with the lowest priced product in that category. The product range appealed to the budget-sensitive shopper. They were seen as low quality but cheap. Retailers rarely run price promotions because the product is cheap already and there is usually only one product to choose from. It emphasizes on the basic use of a product and is available in simple packaging, limited advertisement and cut in quality and therefore occupies the lowest price tier. Classic /copy cat private labels Copycat store brands carry the name of the retailer and tend to have packaging and price points very close to the products that they compete with. The retailers tend to target branded products that are already successful then produce a copycat that has similar ingredients, packaging and pricing. Copycat retailers can thereby cash in on the success of the branded product without having to incur the costs associated with developing the product and researching the market. Marketing costs are also kept down since the product is instantly recognizable as being associated with the product it is copying. With copycat brands there is no cost of failure to absorb since only successful products are targeted. The retailer tends to produce a similar product and offer it at a lower price than the branded product so the message to the consumer is that it is as good but cheaper. The advantages of having copycat brands is not only to make profit on the sale of the product itself, but it creates competition for the existing manufacturer branded products as well as increasing the retailers bargaining power with the manufacturers, since the retailer has the option to promote its own brand in competition with the original brands. The Spanish clothing chain Zara is a very successful copycat company that sells private labels only, producing fashion clothing at very low prices that imitates famous designers and well-known brands. They employ talented and unknown young designers to pick up on key trends and translate them into clothing for the Zara chain. Its strategy allows it to operate with extremely low costs of advertising, staffing, market research, and so on, that the manufacturer brands continue to incur. Premium private labels As retailer strategies have developed, the approaches have evolved to incorporate premium store brands. Retailers have seen the opportunity to differentiate their products and thereby target a whole new section of the market. The latest trend is to establish high quality products with distinctive packaging, presented as a whole new product line by the retailer, targeted at competing with the top brands in the range. Kumar and Steenkamp define two types of premium brands: the premium private label which is exclusive, higher in price, and superior in quality to competing brands; and the premium-lite store brand which is promoted as being equal or better in quality to the competing brands, while being cheaper. Value innovators in private labels Value innovators are the fourth main category of private labels. The retailers following this approach have focused on cutting down costs and processes to simplify the production and marketing of product ranges, so that a good quality product can be offered at very low prices. The value innovator approach differs greatly to the generic, copycat and premium label approaches. There are a number of key principles that must be adhered to for this approach to be successful. Limited number of products Low costs of production and marketing Good quality products at low prices PRIVATE LABEL BRANDS IN INDIAN MARKET  » Indias largest retail company Future Group has 12 apparel, 4 FMCG and 2 household product private labels in its formats Big Bazaar, Food Bazaar and Pantaloon. Besides these it also has many other private labels across categories and formats.  » Aditya Birlas private labels segment has 7 brands which Aditya Birla Retail Limited provides customers products under its own labels. Private label Food Brands include Feasters, Kitchens Promise, and Best of India. Home Personal care brands include Enriche, 110%, Pestex, Paradise and Germex. It is also planning to launch its private labels in milk and dairy products.  » Tata Croma has plans for 100+ private labels across categories like personal care equipment, laptops, small appliances, etc.  » Reliance Fresh sells staples and food items under Reliance Select and Reliance Value brands. It has recently launched Dairy Pure, in the liquid milk segment. Reliance also sells a number of private labels in other categories like apparel, through its various other formats.  » Shoppers Stop has around 10 private labels, the prominent ones being Stop, Kashish, Life, etc.  » Bharti retail recently launched 8 international private labels of Wal-Mart in its supermarket chain, Easy day.  » Myntra is looking to launch its own private label by Q3 2012, which according to him, will contribute to a better bottom-line for the company, since the margins in private labels are higher.  » Flipkart has entered the private label league through online store brand Digiflip, a brand that sells digital accessories such as laptop bags, sleeves and camera bags pouches.  » Ruchi Soya Corp has tied up recently with Future Group for manufacturing its private label brand Fresh Pure. Internationally  » Nestle works with Lidl, a discount retailer, to create products and packaging in many categories across countries. In the Indian context, Brand owners and manufactures like Indo Nissin (Brand: Top Ramen), Dynamix Dairy (Brand: Dynamix) etc. also manufacture private label brands for their retailers to occupy their excess production capacity.  » Wal Marts private label George is one of the highest selling apparel brands in the US.  » Aldi, the German deep discounter has more than 90 per cent of its sales coming from private labels. Some of its private labels sell more than any national brand in Germany ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PRIVATE LABEL: The advantages and disadvantages vary depending to which market sector we are referring to. These can be defined as follows: For Retailers: Advantages: Reduction of producer domination in the marketplace Increase in consumer loyalty An opportunity to differentiate and provide variety Flexibility in pricing strategy Positive control over stock keeping inventory Better bargaining position in a depressed economy Disadvantages: Erosion of brand image and brand value if private label quality is poor Lack of standardization of private labels between categories upsets the customer Financial control concerns Excessive focus on the private label at the expense of other products The retailer could be perceived as less powerful in the marketplace as they dont promote recognized brands Low price may equate to low quality Lack of financial support from suppliers For Consumers Advantages: A guarantee of the same quality for a serious price differentiation More variety within the category A trusted retail name equals trust in the product Product provides a need based on a want, where products were missing within the category. E.g. ethnic foods, diet foods, sugar free foods and so on. Disadvantages: Low quality product. Consumers may have a prejudice to low price equaling low quality Previous customer failures could affect the whole private label range in a store. INDIA SCENARIO: Correlated with the immense growth in the retail sector, the growth in sales of private brands stands at an impressive 30% (YOY). As per an AC Nielsen study groceries account for 46% of Private Brand sales. Correlated with the immense growth in the retail sector, the growth in sales of private brands stands at an impressive 30% (YOY). As per an AC Nielsen study groceries account for 46% of Private Brand sales. Strategic Issues for Retail CEOs, a thought leadership report by PricewaterhouseCoopers, puts forth that private label products will be a major lever for growth of participants in Indias retail sector. Indian consumers, often referred to as value conscious, will find major benefit in purchasing private label products since final promotional offers to quickly move their own brands. Indias major retailers expect to embark upon the following strategies for their private label products: costs paid are lower. A demanding and aspiring middle class of 300 million people (or 75 million households) and a large young population of 500 million under the age of 25 years are just two of the demographic-oriented statistics that suggest a large market for private labels in India. In India, private labels are becoming a major component of retailers long-term strategies encompassing product development and sales. Most retailers are investing towards creating robust private label ranges which will appeal to consumers, delight consumers and also meet consumers price preferences. Those retailers who develop good quality, well-priced private labels, and focus on branding and promotion, will increase both their top and bottom lines in a retail environment where innovation, meeting customers needs and efficiency are imperative. (Indian Retail embraces private labels by N. V. Sivakumar). The greatest potential for private labels lies in developing countries, where retail chains with well-developed private-label ranges are growing rapidly. Although growth for private labels is expected in all most all sectors, the highest growth in share is anticipated in the ready-meals sector. The growth of private labels in the international market, especially in developing countries, will be guided by the demands of busier lifestyles. Delivering higher quality and convenience, and introducing innovation in product ranges will help the private-label market to expand further. Retailers can make use of these opportunities by offering good-quality private labels that will foster a sense of brand quality among the customers. Over the long term, this could offer retailers a significant advantage in the global retail sphere. (Going global with private labels: Sandeep Puri Dr Harsh Dwivedi). Private labels are still nascent in India which is to be expected given that modern trade started in the late 1990s. Given the variances in market maturity between Indias retail sector and that of other retail markets in the US and in Europe, it is natural that private labels have yet to achieve a level of sophistication in India that they enjoy overseas. RESEARCH FINDINGS: Some of the significant findings from the PLMA (Private Label Manufacturers Association) Research Report 2010 2011 are: 1). Consumers continue to turn to private-label products in these supermarket categories in which they had formerly purchased only a national-brand product. Around 43 percent of these consumers report that they have recently forsaken a familiar national brand for a private-label counterpart-a marked increase since the GfK study conducted in June 2009, when only 35 percent of consumers said they had done so. 2). Ninety-seven percent respondents compared private labels favorably to their previous national brand choices in the same categories. About 49 percent said that their new private-label selections compared very favorably to their earlier selected national brands. This is an impressive increase from 2009 when only 26 percent reported the same. A 2010 online global survey conducted by The Nielsen Company reveals that 60 percent of consumers across 55 countries from Asia Pacific, Europe, North America, Latin America and Middle East/Africa (comprising countries from Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates, Egypt and South Africa) say they are buying more private-label brands because of the economic slowdown. An uncertain economy encouraged many customers to try private labels for the first time. Once this initial barrier was breached, they found private labels to be as good as their branded counterparts, albeit at economical prices. PRIVATE LABELS VS NATIONAL BRANDS: There are a few reasons driving private label growth: an increased concentration among retailers, an improved quality perception among consumers, and a rising social acceptance of private labels consumption. In addition, the current economic downturn has further boosted the appeal of private labels because of their price utility. To combat the threat posed by private labels, consumer packaged goods companies frequently adopt new innovation strategies focused on delivering new value to consumers. Furthermore, research shows that national brand manufacturers have mainly focused on increasing their distance from private labels through innovation and advertising in order to provide a superior value to the consumers compared to private labels brands. In this sense, product innovations help to sustain a national brands competitive advantage and provide a basis for a sustainable price premium over store brands. Research also shows that introduction of new products by national brands has a positive impact on their brand equity which makes them less vulnerable to PLs. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR PRIVATE LABELS IN INDIA: 1).Lack of retailer sophistication could hamper private label growth There is lack of supply chain sophistication among Indian retailers. Most retailers still exchange information manually with suppliers. Indian retailers are yet to implement bar-coding techniques properly, let alone sophisticated technologies such as radio frequency identification (RFID). There is also a lack of integrated IT systems, coupled with low overall IT spending. As is evident, Indian retailers have a long way to go before they can be compared with international retailers such as Tesco and Wal-Mart, in terms of technology and supply chain sophistication. Therefore, unless retailers pay attention to these issues, they will be unable to make successful private label portfolios. 2).Rural areas unlikely to be tapped by private labels in the near future While it is widely acknowledged that the real potential in Indian retail lies in rural areas, the rural retail scenario continues to be unorganized and highly fragmented. While FMCG manufacturers such as Hindustan Unilever and ITC continue their efforts to solve the rural retail jigsaw through projects such as Shakti and e-Choupal, major retailers have tended to stay away from the rural scene. In light of high access costs due to infrastructure bottlenecks, along with absence of a successful rural retailing model, the above trend is likely to continue in the coming years. Therefore, the Indian private label market is expected to be largely confined to urban areas (metro cities), with some growth also coming from semi-urban areas (tier II towns). 3).Psyche of the urban Indian consumer is both a hurdle and an opportunity In an ACNielsen consumer survey in 2005, only 56 per cent Indians agreed that private labels are a good option in comparison with brands as against four in five consumers in developed countries. Further, the same survey also concluded that a majority of Indian consumers associate private labels with low cost, and are, therefore, apprehensive about compromising on quality. The target segment for organized retail in India is still predominantly urban, and in the context of private labels, it is more inclined towards upwardly mobile urban consumers. This segment gives high priority to quality, and the budget label perception does not help at all. Further, Indian retailers have not been able to develop a bond with consumers. Consumer loyalty has been seen to provide impetus to private label growth in developed countries such as the United Kingdom. The lack of this bonding and loyalty could hamper private label penetration in coming years. At the same time, though, the Indian consumers psyche also provides an opportunity for retailers. The Indian urban consumer is price-conscious, but also expects high quality. Private label products could actually fit the bill perfectly. 4).Intense competition in Indian retail could provide impetus to private labels With the entrance of several corporate majors such as Reliance, there is intense store-level competition in the current Indian retail scenario. However, if Indian retailers were to follow the UK model, this could actually turn out to be a boon for private label growth. Major UK retailers such as Sainsbury and Tesco have successfully used private labels to differentiate themselves. This scenario could be replicated in India in the near future. 5).Private labels likely to exhibit maximum penetration in food and groceries, clothing and consumer durables segments All segments where percentage of organized retail is relatively high, and which are also exhibiting the highest overall growth rates, are most likely to show maximum private label penetration in the near future. The following figure illustrates the findings of a simple analytical model based on the above two assumptions. Private label penetration by category http://www.indiaretailing.com/images/private10.jpg 6).Ability of retailers to innovate likely to drive future growth of private labels The main USP of private labels is their customization according to user demands. They are then promoted by various means including innovative packaging, promotional schemes, and placement within the retail store. Therefore, success of private label retailers globally has been dependent on their ability to innovate in all aspects of a product formulation or ingredients, supply chain, packaging, advertising, promotional schemes, and so on. The dynamism of private label retailers, in responding to changing consumer needs through suitable modifications, is also critical. In light of the intense competition in Indian retail, coupled with the choosy Indian customer, future success of private labels would depend on the ability of Indian retailers to innovate. This is again a question mark, given the reputation of Indian companies as poor innovators. RECENT TRENDS: Private labels are a growth opportunity that retailers cannot afford to ignore and many are assessing market potential by conducting pilot projects to assess the impact that own brands have on visibility, sales and revenues. Others are working on enhancing depth and breadth of private label ranges. Other selected observations include: While low-price private labels exist, retailers are changing their focus from a price game to one that involves developing a portfolio of brands with distinct positioning for each brand. Retail chains are trying to understand unfulfilled demands existing in Indian market through need-gap analysis. Retailers are incorporating demographic and psychographic indicators into their need-gap assessments. Retailers are also learning from the lessons of experimentation; the quality of their private labels is being improved, product extensions are being created, etc. Some retailers are launching dedicated formats for private labels in apparel and accessories. In the early stages of being launched, this is an indication of the level of commitment that retailers are exhibiting to private labels. Retailers are also working to increase and improve the level of trust that consumers have with regard to private label offerings. That said, sharp promotions, competitive pricing, freebies, etc. are some ways in which retailers can incentivize consumers to try private label products. Factors Influencing Private label Strategies: Private labels apparently be successful without having to rely on the price weapon?. Economic theory hold that the price consumers are willing to pay for a product depends on the utility they derive from consuming the product. A major source of utility is the perceived quality of the product. Perceived quality is defined as the degree of perceived performance excellence of the product. How well does the brand perform its function in the eyes of the consumer? Perceived Quality, Not Price, Drives Private Label Success To understand the relation between perceived quality and price, we need to understand the different types of buyers: Random Buyers are not particularly price sensitive and see little difference in quality. Brand buyers are consumers who are low on price sensitivity and perceive a large quality difference between leading national brands and the store brands .They will buy national brand Private label buyers are price sensitive consumers who perceive a small quality gap between leading manufacturer brands and the store brand. They will purchase the store brand. Toss-ups are consumers who are high on price sensitivity and perceive large quality differences between leading national brands and the store brand The battleground is among toss-ups and random buyers. However the strategy to induce them to private labels is very different. Random buyers can be attracted to the private by using in-store stimuli that guide the shopper to the private label, such as favorable shelf facings, shelf tag ons, and end-of the aisle displays. Toss-ups will usually purchase national brand since for most consumers quality is more important than price. This is especially true if the national brand regularly runs price promotions, which will appeal to the toss-ups high price sensitivity. Private labels can convert toss-ups in to private label buyers only if they convince consumers that the quality of the private labels is comparable to, if not better than, the quality of the national brands. National Brands Irrational Price Premium The question to ask is whether consumers willing to pay more for better quality? It is beneficial that they value quality, but better quality products often cost more to produce, which translates in to higher prices. Thus the question is whether products of higher perceived quality also command a higher price in the marketplace. Consumers are often willing to pay disproportionate price premium for better quality, because quality typically has more weightage than price in purchase decisions. When the relationship between perceived quality gap the price premium commanded by the NBs over PLs for CPGS (consumer package goods) was examined on 75 CPG categories in France, one of the worlds most important and competitive private label markets, the following insights were seen In categories where the perceived quality of national brands exceeds the quality of store brands, the average price premium for manufacturer brands is 56 percent. In quality- equivalent categories (i.e., categories where consumers do not perceive a quality difference between national brands and store brands), the price premium commanded by national brands is 37 percent. The French findings are consistent with the evidence from the United States. A recent study ( using objective quality as reported by Consumer Reports) finds that a 1 percent quality gap between manufacturer and store brands is associated with a 5 percent price gap The price premium that national brands command in quality- equivalent markets is the same as in France, or 37 percent. In 33 percent of the cases, consumers perceive manufacturer and store brands as quality equivalent; however they are willing to pay the same price for the store brands as for the manufacturer brand in only 5 percent of the cases. Conclusion The perceived quality gap between NBs and store brands is a major factor driving the price gap Quality is not the only factor; there is residual price gap that cannot be explained by quality perceptions. The findings we had in categories where consumers do not perceive a quality difference between national and store brands , the price premium commanded by manufacturer brands is substantial 37 percent . Consumers are unwilling to pay equivalent prices for store brands even if they perceive them as quality equivalent. This last result is rather depressing for retailers. Why are consumers willing to pay a price premium for manufacturer brands, even when they do not perceive a quality difference between national and store brands? The reason is that national brands have a clear advantage on brand imagery. BRAND IMAGERY AND THE PRICE GAP National brands offer something intangible that most private labels do not (yet) offer. They allow consumers to identify with the values imbued in the brand, and help consumers express who they are and how these brands fit in to their lifestyle and self concept. Brand imagery refers to the personalized social-emotional bond the consumer has with the brand. What does the brand stand for, and does that appeal to me? Consumers show no difficulty in assigning personality characteristics to brands, in thinking about brands as if they are animated, humanized, and personalized. For example brands like Marlboro, Harley- Davidson, Jack Daniels, and Levis glamorize American ideals of the West, strength, and masculinity, while sophisticated brands like Gucci, Chivas Regal, Revlon, and Mercedes are associated with aspiring imagers such as the upper class, glamour, and sexiness. These image components, regardless of the functional qualities of the product, can be extremely important to people. Two brands may be quality equivalent, but if one brand is stronger on image; it will generate higher utility in the target segment. Consumers are willing to pay a price premium for image utility. Using the French CPG data mentioned earlier, the findings are as below The average price premium commanded by manufacturer brands in categories that are low on imagery (e.g., floor cleaners, kitchen paper, canned green beans) is 38 percent. The average price premium commanded by manufacturer brands in categories that are high on imagery (e.g. deodorants, hair coloring products, whiskey) is 61 percent. Thus the price premium associated with brand imagery is, on average, 23 percent and contributes significantly to the price gap. Although the importance of brand imagery varies across consumers, some generalizations still emerge. Younger consumers attach more importance to brand imagery because of their greater desire for social acceptability, besides being more image conscious in general Singles and couples attach more importance to image utility than larger families. Poorer consumers give more weight to brand imagery. This seems paradoxical since they stand to gain most from purchasing a lower priced store brands. However, it allows them to show the world that they are also sophisticated consumers .Thus the fact that the poor buy private labels more often than the rich is because they have to, not because they want to. IMPLICATIONS FOR RETAILERS We have seen that there is a lot more to private label success than price. We can formalize these ideas by drawing on economic theory. Consumers will purchase a private label if the price premium for the national brands exceeds the utility the consumer derives from the surplus in perceived quality and imagery generated by the national brand. Thus private labels do not have to compete on price alone. Beyond managing the price gap, they can also compete on two non price strategies. We will discuss them first before turning to managing the price gap. Decreasing the Perceived Quality Gap One way to decrease the perceived quality gap with the national brands is to increase the objective (actual) quality of the private label by using better materials

“Hooray for the Underdog!” Essay -- Social Issues, Bullying

No one wants to be called an underdog. The emotional and feelings that comes when you keeo on trying. Being challenged as an underdog amongst peers, family members, even strangers, can have a long lasting effect for someone social being. Being casted as someone who can not measure up to any particular goal or ambitions, usually that person enters a stage of melancholy and loneliness. SHORTEN IT!!! Ever been dubbed the underdog? A society of called the United States of America was claimed to be the underdog from the old world However what happens if the station change and it was not an individual situation, but it’s was predicated on an entire nation? Usually underdogs never have the support to help their ideas and view to be noticed. One author took one this a underdog, America and showed how democracy in a new world can change society into a radical society of equality. When we are being bullied, it’s always nice to have someone to stick up for us during our time of need. Usually we do have someone who cares enough to stand up for us, but Sometimes that doesn’t not happen and we’re left alone to defend for ourselves. And we look to our own inner strength to build up our crushes ego. But, imagine, that the bullying was presented in a larger scale? Imagine the victim was a state, how would reactions play out? In Tocqueville’s Democracy in America, that sort of bullying was taking place. But as individuals would inattentively hurt one another, no, this is was a attack on a America and its citizens, such as the Puritans and the liberal democracy of the America. Tocqueville was sent to view the supposed faulty political system of America, but One that was looked upon hastily was the American Puritans ( add more) ... ...uotes) In the long run, this political behaviour (if not changed) can lead up to many problems in regards to building state to state relationships in the future. when trying to build relationship in between, and using prejudices to segregate as a way to keep only harm alliances. A democratic political system can look scary on the outside, but in the long run the system can improve, but only as its followers want to make their system into a better place. Tocqueville was right in standing up for America because he had the experience and the knowledge that citizens from the mother land did not. In truth, his main focus in the end was to show that America was more happier, peaceful, and hold teh keys to allow democradcy to build and expand to freedom for all.

Exploring Reliability and Validity Essay

The Values and Motives Questionnaire, also known as the Values and Motives Inventory, is designed to examine a person’s motivation in relation to his values and activities. In order to ensure a comprehensive understanding of values, the VMQ assess three distinct areas, including: interpersonal, intrinsic, and extrinsic. Interpersonal values, according to the VMQ refer to one’s relationships with others. Intrinsic values contain one’s personal beliefs and attitudes. Finally, extrinsic values are one’s motivating factors at the workplace. Each of these three areas contain twelve topics addressed during the test. While the VMQ can be used for a variety of reasons, it is typically used in the workplace as a guidance tool. When exploring the Values and Motives Questionnaire, it is important to understand its reliability and validity. This paper will address the measurement’s reliability and validity, including its coefficients, strengths, and weaknesses. Type of Reliability and Validity According to Whiston (2013), â€Å"reliability refers to the consistency of such measurements when the testing procedure is repeated on a population of individuals or groups† (pg. 40). In its simplest form, reliability refers examines the dependability of the scores. It also measures the standard error of measurement (SEM) within the instrument. The SEM is a hypothesis of what the scores would be if someone took the test more than once. Whiston (2013) continues on to explain the various types of reliability, including: test-retest, alternate or parallel forms, and internal consistency measures. The designers and authors of the Values and Motives Questionnaire explain that the measurement used internal consistency reliability with the sample (Values and Motives Questionnaire, n.d). Internal consistency of reliability simply means that the test is divided into different sections. The scores are than correlated. This form of reliability assess the measurement internally to determ ine its reliability (Whiston, 2013). Another important area of the measurement to understand is validity. Whiston (2013) argues that validity addresses â€Å"what an instrument measures and how well it does that task† (pg. 58). Whiston (2013) explains that historically, validity has been separated into three distinct types: content-related validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity. The first, content-related validity, addressed the degree to which the results of the test adequately represented the specific behavior. In order for a measurement to be valid, it must be appropriate for its intended use (Whiston, 2013). This form of validity is evident in the VMQ, because the data is comparable to other instruments that measure both motivational and values factors (Values and Motives Questionnaire, n.d). Next, criterion-related validity focuses mainly on the degree to which the measurement predicted the specific criterion (Whiston, 2013). The correlations within the VMQ appear to be average and independent of one another (Values and Motives Questionnaire, n.d). Finally, construct validity is concerned with the degree to which the test measures the intended behavior or construct. This entails that the instrument is appropriate for the test taker (Whiston, 2013). The Values and Motives Questionnaire accurately measures motivating factors and values among individuals. It appears the test provides the validity for both content and construct but not for criterion-related validity (Values and Motives Questionnaire, n.d). Areas of Strength and Concern The Values and Motives Questionnaire gave us internal consistency reliability and SEM. The internal consistency of this measurement used the coefficient alpha. The coefficients were all over .5, but they each had various ranges. Because the scale had such varying ranges, one could wonder if this could indicate a problem with errors? The VMQ shows an overall internal dependability and a low level of SEM. The internal consistency does surpass the requirements for a reliable instrument. According to authors of the VMQ (n.d), â€Å"†¦the scales approximate or exceed acceptable levels of internal consistency† (pg. 16). However, it is important to note that the scores of this test are not normally distributed, which impacts the standard deviations of the scores. While the deviation of the scores is acceptable, the test results did not have an extremely high correlation. The VMQ also  demonstrated the validity scales having lower correlations (Values and Motives Questionnaire, n.d). One weakness of the reliability to consider is that the test was only compared to other tests that examined values. It did not compare values to those of other countries/cultures. Specific cultures and/or family systems have specific values that are instilled in them throughout the years. It would be beneficial to use this instrument in comparison to different demographic backgrounds. In doing this, one will be able to gain insight into how these differences can affect the results and ensure all persons are adequately represented. Sample Size and Nature of Population The Values and Motives Questionnaire studied a specific population. It consisted of 159 MBA and psychology students (Values and Motives Questionnaire, n.d). While research does need to start somewhere, this limited population will not produce results that represent the population as a whole. Using this specific population may lead to skewed results, specifically in the areas of achievement considering the total population that was studied were all continuing their education. Clearly, not everyone in the general population has had the chance to pursue a college degree, let alone and MBA. This high level of achievement would certainly skew the results. It is important to note that the sample size was relatively small and well over one third of the small sample was psychology students. These variables need to be taken into consideration when assessing the results of the Values and Motives Questionnaire. Personal Opinion Overall, I found the Values and Motives Questionnaire to be very interesting. Assessing one’s subjective feelings and value systems is not easily empirically proven. However, the idea of the test seems beneficial. However, I do believe the designers of the VMQ would gain more insight if they were to compare the results to various cultures’ values. Using the results from varying cultures will have totally different results than a small group of 159 college students. I do believe further research is needed to provide more concrete information on the topics of the VMQ. Although the instrument proved to be both reliable and valid, it is pertinent that further research be conducted to find higher correlations. References Values and motive questionnaire: The technical manual. (n.d). Bedfordshire, UK: Psytech International. Whiston, S (2013). Principles and applications of assessment in counseling. (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Using Experiments To Identify An Unknown Compound Environmental Sciences Essay

Abstract. The intent of this experiment was to place the unknown compound. The trials that were done to find the individuality of the compound include qualitative solubility trials, quantitative solubility trials, mensurating solution conduction, anion and cation trial, fire trial, and formation of precipitate. It was found that the compound had no odor, was soluble in H2O, and non soluble in methylbenzene and propanone. The ions dissociated in the H2O, making conduction. When the ammonium hydroxide trial was performed no ammonium hydroxide odor was produced. The flame trial yielded a colour that matched that of Na hydrogen carbonate indicating that the unknown compound contained Na. The anion trial for chloride proved to be positive, ensuing in the summing up that the unknown compound was sodium chloride.IntroductionThe group is employed by an Environmental Protection Agency to indentify a compound in the landfill in your place town. The group must besides detect as many chemical an d physical belongingss of the compound as we can. We need to invent two syntheses of the compound, and compare them for cost effectivity, safety, and possible output of the compound. To place the compound, the physical belongingss ( odor, colour, and province ) demand to be established. Next, the qualitative solubility of the compound was tested in H2O, methylbenzene, and propanone, which would find whether the compound would fade out from rain H2O or other chemicals that may be present in the landfill and make overflow. Conductivity was besides tested with a voltmeter in order to find whether or non the compound would be unsafe when dissolved in H2O. If the compound was conductive it would fade out in H2O and produce an electric current. The flame trial was performed to stipulate one of the elements. A solution of H2O and the component was used to put the nichrome wire in, and so the nichrome wire is placed into the fire. If the fire produces a colour it is declarative of a certain metalloid ion or metal. A colour is produced in the fire when the heat of the fire changes the metal ions into atoms which so become aroused and bring forth visible radiation that can be seen with the bare oculus. It is besides of import to analyse the presence of certain cations and anions utilizing trials that identify the presence of the anions chloride and sulphate, and the presence of the cation ammonium. The anion trials for chloride and sulfate prove to be positive when a white precipitate signifiers and the ammonium trial proves to be positive when an ammonium odor is produced. After all of the physical and chemical trials were performed, a solution of the unknown compound and a solution of what was deduced to be unknown compound were reacted with an acid ( azotic acid ) , a base ( potassium hydrated oxide ) , silver nitrate, K sulphate, and K nitrate in order to find if they produce the same consequences. Gravimetric filtration was so performed with the known and unknown s ubstance. A precipitate was formed utilizing Ag nitrate, which could so be weighed. After the filtration procedure, the unknown compound was so synthesized to bring forth a per centum output.ConsequencesTable 1 Physical Properties TestColor White State of Matter Solid Olfactory property None Solubility in Water Soluble Conduction 0.35 VsTable 2 Anion TrialsTrials PerformedConsequencesTrial for Chloride White Precipitate Formed Trial for Sulfate No Chemical reaction Trial for Nitrate No Brown Ring Trial for Carbonate Clear Trial for Acetate Clear, OdorlessTable 3 Cation TrialsTrials PerformedChemical reactionConsequencesTrial for Ammonium NH4Cl + NaOH i? Ammonium Smell No Odor Fire Test Bright Orange/Yellow Fire SodiumTable 4 Chemical reaction TrialsType of Chemical reactionBalanced EquationChemical reactionAcid NaCl ( aq ) + HNO3 ( aq ) – & A ; gt ; NaNO3 ( aq ) + HCl ( aq ) None Base NaCl ( aq ) + KOH ( aq ) – & A ; gt ; NaOH ( aq ) + KCl ( aq ) None Double Supplanting NaCl ( aq ) + AgNO3 ( aq ) – & A ; gt ; AgCl ( aq ) + NaO3 ( aq ) Precipitate formed Double Supplanting NaCl ( aq ) + K2SO4 ( aq ) – & A ; gt ; Na2SO4 ( aq ) + 2 KCl ( aq ) None Double Supplanting NaCl ( aq ) + KNO3 ( aq ) – & A ; gt ; NaNO3 ( aq ) + KCl ( aq ) NoneTable 5 Gravimetric AnalysisNaCl ( aq ) + AgNO3 ( aq ) – & A ; gt ; AgCl ( s ) + NaNO3 ( aq ) Vacuum Filtration Trial # Sum of Precipitate Produced ( gms ) Percent Output Known Trial 1 1.081 88.18 % Known Trial 2 1.196 97.56 % Unknown Trial 1 1.211 98.78 % Unknown Trial 2 1.185 96.66 % Unknown Trial 3 1.170 95.44 %Table 6 Synthesis Chemical reactionChemical reaction Sum Produced ( gms ) Theoretical Output ( gms ) Percent Output HCl ( aq ) + NaOH ( aq ) i? NaCl ( s ) + H2O ( cubic decimeter ) 1.971 2 98.55 %DiscussionFirst, the physical belongingss of the unknown compound were observed and recorded. It was found that the compound was crystalline in construction, a solid, white, with no olfactory property ( Table 1 ) . All of these belongingss suggest that the compound was ionic because ionic compounds do non hold a distinguishable olfactory property and are solid at room temperature because of their high thaw points. The unknown compound was so tested for solubility in H2O, methylbenzene and propanone. The compound was soluble in H2O, bespeaking the compound was a polar or ionic compound, and non soluble in methylbenzene or propanone which eliminates it being polar or nonionic. Therefore, this points to the compound being ionic. After the compound was dissolved in H2O, the conduction was tested with a voltmeter, which produced a electromotive force of 0.35 Vs turn outing that the substance is conductive since it is over 0.1 Vs. This farther proves that the unknown compound was io nic since merely ionic compounds dissociate in H2O and make an electric current. The fire trial was performed to find one of the elements in the compound. Four known compounds, Na hydrogen carbonate, Mg nitrate, Ca sulphate, and K nitrate were put under the fire trial to compare the unknown to. When the unknown compound was put under the fire trial it produced the same colour as Na hydrogen carbonate, bright orange/yellow, bespeaking the presence of Na ( Table 3 ) . The ammonium trial was besides performed to verify that the compound did non incorporate ammonium hydroxide. No odor was produced when the unknown solution and Na hydrated oxide were assorted, and a odor would bespeak the presence of ammonium hydroxide. Therefore, the compound was proven to incorporate Na. When the anion trials for chloride and sulphate were performed, a white precipitate was produced from the chloride trial, bespeaking the presence of chloride while the sulfate reaction created no precipitate bespeaking the absence of sulphate ( Table 2 ) . In add-on, the unknown compound was put through a series of reactions along with what was believed to be the compound in order to compare the reactions to find if they produce the same reactions. First Na chloride, what is believed to be the unknown compound, and the unknown compound were reacted with Ag nitrate, which produced a precipitate because it was a dual supplanting that produced AgCl which is non soluble in H2O. Sodium chloride and the unknown compound were reacted with K sulphate but produced no reaction because the merchandises sodium sulphate and K chloride are both soluble in H2O. Sodium chloride and the unknown compound were so besides reacted with K nitrate, making a dual supplanting reaction which produces Na nitrate and K chloride, which are besides both soluble in H2O, hence bring forthing no reaction. When Na chloride and the unknown compound were reacted with an acid, azotic acid, but the presence of the Na chloride did non impact the pH of the azotic acid becaus e it was an ionic compound. When the Na chloride and the unknown compound were reacted with a base, K hydrated oxide, there was besides no reaction or alteration in the pH of the K hydrated oxide because the Na chloride is an ionic compound. Both the Na chloride and the unknown compound produced the same consequences in every reaction further turn outing that they are one in the same ( Table 4 ) . Once it was found that Na chloride and Ag nitrate bring forth a precipitate when reacted, the reaction was used to bring forth a certain sum of precipitate which was so used in hydrometric analysis to see if both the known and unknown compound would bring forth the same sum of precipitate. The reaction that was filtrated was NaCl ( aq ) + AgNO3 ( aq ) – & A ; gt ; AgCl ( s ) + NaO3 ( aq ) . The consequences from the known reaction were 1.77 gms of filter paper and 1.081 gms of precipitate entirely, while the theoretical output was 1.225 gms. The unknown reaction has yet to be found. The per centum output for the reaction was 97.56 % ( Table 5 ) . A synthesis reaction was the concluding trial preformed. The undermentioned chemical reaction occurred: HCl ( aq ) + NaOH ( aq ) i? NaCl ( s ) + H2O ( cubic decimeter ) . Once all of the H2O was evaporated out with the usage of a hot home base, the precipitate was able to be weighed and the per centum output could be calculated. The reaction had a percent output of 98.55 % ( Table 6 ) .DecisionAfter being employed by the Environmental Protection Agency, the group was able to place the compound in the landfill. After all of the trials and reactions were performed, it was found that the unknown compound was sodium chloride. Its solubility in H2O, conduction, and crystalline construction points to the fact that the compound is ionic. The positive fire trial for Na indicates that Na is one of the elements in the compound because it produced a bright orange fire. The positive chloride trial, when a white precipitate was formed, indicates that chloride is the 2nd component in the compound. The unknown compound and Na chloride were put through the same reactions and systematically produced the same consequences, farther indicating that the unknown compound is sodium chloride. The gravitative analysis of the known and unknown substances provided similar consequences, endorsing up that the unknown substance was sodium chloride. The synthesis reaction produced a percent output of 95.05 % .Experimental Procedure:Physical Properties TrialsThe physical province of the unknown compound was observed. This included the province of affair, odor ( utilizing the wafting technique ) , colour, and construction. A little sum of the unknown compound was placed in about 50mL of H2O and stirred to see if it would fade out. The same solution was used for the voltmeter and the conduction was recorded.Anion TrialsChloride Ion TestApproximately 1 milliliter of the unknown solution was placed in a trial tubing and 1 milliliter of 6 M HNO3 was added. After that another 1 milliliter of AgNO3 was added. Whether a white precipitate was formed or non was recorded. If a white precipitate is observed, a chloride ion is present in the solution.Sulfate Ion TestApproximately 1 milliliter of the unknown solution was placed into a trial tubing and 1 milliliter of 6 M HCl was added. After that another 1 milliliter of BaCl2 solution was added to the same trial tubing. Whether or non a white precipitate formed was recorded. If a white precipitate is formed, sulphate is present in the solution.Cation TrialFire TestThe heat from the Bunsen fire was used to cleanse the nichrome wire. A little sum of the unknown compound was placed onto the nichrome wire and held over the fire. The colour of the fire was observed.Ammonium TrialApproximately 1 milliliters of 6 M NaOH was added to 1 milliliter of the unknown compound solution. The pennant technique was used to observe if there was any olfactory property. If the odor of ammonium hydroxide was present, there were ammonium ions nowadays in the solution.Responsiveness TrialsChemical reaction with an AcidA solution with a little sum of unknown compound was assorted in 50 milliliter of H2O and a separate solution of a little sum of ammonium chloride and 50 milliliter of H2O. A little sum of the two solutions were placed in to two separate trial tubings and a little sum of HNO3.Double Displacement Chemical reactionA solution of a little sum of unknown compound was placed into 50 milliliter of H2O and a separate solution incorporating a little sum of Na chloride and 50 milliliter of H2O. A little sum of the two solutions wa s placed into two separate trial tubings and a little sum of K2SO4 was added into each trial tubing. The trial tubings were so swirled and assorted.Double Displacement Chemical reactionA solution of a little sum of unknown compound was assorted with a solution of 50 milliliter of H2O and a separate solution of a little sum of Na chloride and 50 milliliter of H2O. A little sum of the two solutions were placed into two separate trial tubings and a little sum of AgNO3 was added into each of the trial tubing. The trial tubings were so swirled and assorted.Double Displacement Chemical reactionA solution of a little sum of unknown compound was assorted in 50 milliliter of H2O and a separate solution of a little sum of Na chloride and 50 milliliter of H2O. A little sum of the two solutions were so placed into two separate trial tubings and a little sum of KNO3 was added to each trial tubing. The trial tubings were so swirled and assorted, and whether or non a reaction occurred was recorded .Chemical reaction with a BaseA little sum of unknown compound was assorted with 50 milliliters of H2O and a separate solution of a little sum of ammonium chloride and 50 milliliter of H2O. A little sum of these two solutions were so placed into two separate trial tubings and a little sum of KOH was added.Hydrometric AnalysisA Buchner flask was used with a funnel placed over the top. The filter paper was weighed and so wetted with H2O somewhat. The solution incorporating the precipitate was poured onto the filter paper and left until most of the liquid had seeped through. The filter was so removed from the funnel and placed into an oven for 10 proceedingss until the precipitate and paper had wholly dried. The filter paper was so weighed with the precipitate still on top. The weight of the filer paper was subtracted from the new weight to obtain the most accurate consequence. The process was completed three times with the unknown substances and twice with a known substance.Synthesis Chemical reactionApproximately 12.3 milliliters of ammonium hydrated oxide was assorted with 6.2 milliliters of hydrochloric acid in a beaker. The solution was placed on a hot home base ( under a goon ) and allowed to boil until all of the liquid evaporated. The staying precipitate was removed from the beaker and weighed.

Attention Teens Essays

Attention Teens Essays Attention Teens Essay Attention Teens Essay Essay Topic: Teens Attention all teens! After a long long long time of waiting on hand and knee of the evil adultarchy, we the teens and the Council of Teenage Freedom have decided to revolt! just Sure, we are Just a bunch of teens funded by the first national bank of dad, we have no say in politics until we are 18, The truths that we hold self-evident is; the right to have a myspace page. The right to be able to play video games whenever we want. In addition, to have the right to have a cell phone at any age. We would like the right to be able to watch T. V. any time of the day. The right to go places by ourselves. We would like the right to receive money from our parents whenever needed or wanted. The right to be able to watch any movie of any rating we desire. Last but not least, to abolish the child labor, which they call chores. The adultarchy have put us through many injuries and usurpations. They have caused us much pain and agony, Just to list a few: Our parents have forbideth us the right to have a reasonable curfew time. They have forbade us to go to places by thyself. Our school administrators hath not let us chew gum or wear hats in class. Our school administrators have forced us to wear uniforms to hide our expression and individuality. Our school administrators have placed unreasonable exit times and have instructed the teachers to give us unreasonable amount homework. Our parents have forbid us to borrow money in need of emergencies. They have not let us watch certain PG-13 and R movies. They have forbade us of having loud music on. They have forbid us of having parties or going to parties. They have compelled us to do homework as soon as we get home. They have forbid us to go places alone. They have even taketh away our prized possessions when we have a done something afoul. I and other members of the Council of Teenage Freedom have tried fruitlessly to peacefully resolve problems with the adultarchy. We have asked politely, respectfully and with a clear mind for them to give us a little leeway in our way of life. We have finished our homework on time, gotten good grades, even not acted badly. However, the have stayed quite stubborn. We will not let this mockery of us keep going, so we will strike back. On behalf of the Council of Teenage Freedom, and those being butchered and maimed by the tyrannical adultarchy, hereby declare the official breaking away from the government system of the adultarchy. We will create our own government and we will become independent. We will be led and guided by our heavenly god Gene Simmons, there is to be no arguing about this proclamation from teenagers or adults alike. If any do so, they will be banished to live among the adults. Attention Teens By Shanteria09

Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood Chapters 1-4 Vocabulary Essays

Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood Chapters 1-4 Vocabulary Essays Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood Chapters 1-4 Vocabulary Paper Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood Chapters 1-4 Vocabulary Paper adolescence A period of the life course between the timepuberty begins and the time adult status is approached, when young people are in the process of preparing to take on the roles and responsibilities of adulthood in their culture. life-cycle service A period in their late teens and 20s in which young people from the 16th to the 19th century engaged in domestic service, farm service, or apprenticeships in various trades and crafts. child study movement Late 19th century group, led by G. Stanley Hall, that advocated research on child and adolescent development and the improvement of conditions for children and adolescents in the family, school, and workplace. recapitulation Now-discredited theory that held that the development of each individual recapitulates the evolutionary development of the human species as a whole. storm and stress Theory promoted by G. Stanley Hall asserting that adolescence is inevitably a time of mood disruptions, conflict with parents, and antisocial behavior. survey A questionnaire study that involves asking a large number of people questions about their opinions, beliefs, or behavior. stratified sampling Sampling technique in which researchers select participants so that various categories of people are represented in proportions equal to their presence in the population. random sample Sampling technique in which the people selected for participation in a study are chosen randomly, meaning that no one in the population has a better or worse chance of being selected than anyone else. menarche A girls first menstrual period. emerging adulthood Period from roughly ages 18 to 25 in industrialized countries during which young people become more independent from parents and explore various life possibilities before making enduring commitments. Lamarckian Reference to Lamarcks ideas, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, that evolution takes place as a result of accumulated experience such that organisms pass on their characteristics from one generation to the next in the form of memories and acquired characteristics. early adolescence Period of human development lasting from about age 10 to about age 14. late adolescence Period of human development lasting from about age 15 to about age 18. individualism Cultural belief system that emphasized the desirability of independence, self-sufficiency, and self-expression. collectivism A set of beliefs asserting that it is important for persons to mute their individual desires in order to contribute to the well-being and success of the group. interdependence The web of commitments, attachments, and obligations that exist in some human groups. scientific method A systematic way of finding the answers to questions or problems that includes standards of sampling, procedure, and measures. hypotheses Ideas, based on theory or previous research, that a scholar wishes to test in a scientific study. sample The people included in a given study, who are intended to represent the population of interest. population The entire group of people of interest in a study. representative Characteristic of a sample that refers to the degree to which it accurately represents the population of interest. generalizable Characteristic of a sample that refers to the degree to which findings based on the sample can be used to make accurate statements about the population of interest. procedure Standards for the way a study is conducted. Includes informed consent and certain rules for avoiding biases in the data collection. method A scientific strategy for collecting data. peer reviewed When a scholarly article or book is evaluated by a scholars peers (i.e., other scholars) for scientific credibility and importance. informed consent Standard procedure in social scientific studies that entails informing potential participants of what their participation would involve, including any possible risks. consent form Written statement provided by a researcher to potential participants in a study, informing them of who is conducting the study, the purposes of the study, and what their participation would involve, including potential risks. closed question Questionnaire format that entails choosing from specific responses provided for each question. open-ended question Questionnaire format that involves writing in response to each question. interview Research method that involves asking people questions in a conversational format, such that peoples answers are in their own words. qualitative Data that is collected in non-numerical form, usually in interviews or observations. quantitative Data that is collected in numerical form, usually on questionnaires. ethnographic research Research in which scholars spend a considerable amount of time among the people they wish to study, usually living among them. ethnography A book that presents an anthropologists observations of what life is like in a particular culture. reliability Characteristic of a measure that refers to the extent to which results of the measure on one occasion are similar to results of the measure on a separate occasion. validity The truthfulness of a measure, that is, the extent to which it measures what it claims to measure. experimental research method A research method that entails assigning participants randomly to an experimental group that received a treatment and a control group that does not receive the treatment, then comparing the two groups in a posttest. experimental group In experimental research, the group that receives the treatment. control group In experimental research, the group that does not receive the treatment. interventions Programs intended to change the attitudes and/or behavior of the participants. natural experiment A situation that occurs naturally but that provides interesting scientific information to the perceptive observer. monozygotic (MZ) twins Twins with exactly the same genotype. Also known as identical twins. dizygotic (DZ) twins Twins with about half their genotype in common, the same as for other siblings. Also known as fraternal twins. correlation versus causation A correlation is a predictable relationship between two variables, such that knowing one of the variables makes it possible to predict the other. However, just because two variables are correlated does not mean that one causes the other, longitudinal study A study in which data is collected from the participants on more than one occasion. patriarchal authority Cultural belief in the absolute authority of the father over his wife and children. filial piety Confucian belief, common in many Asian societies, that children are obligated to respect, obey, and revere their parents, especially the father. caste system Hindu belief that people are born into a particular caste based on their moral and spiritual conduct in their previous life. A persons caste then determines their status in Indian society. globalization Increasing worldwide technological and economic integration, which is making different pars of the world increasingly connected and increasingly similar culturally. bicultural Having an identity that includes aspects of two different cultures. resilience Overcoming adverse environmental circumstances to achieve healthy development. culture The total pattern of a groups customs, beliefs, art, and technology; a groups common way of life, passed on from one generation to the next. the West The United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand; they are all developed countries, they are all representative democracies with similar kinds of governments, and they share to some extent a common cultural history; today, they are characterized by secularism, consumerism, and capitalism, to one degree or another; usually refers to the majority culture in each of the countries, but each country also has cultural groups that do not share the characteristics of the majority culture and may even be in opposition to it. developed countries Includes the countries of the West along with Eastern countries such as Japan and South Korea; all of them have highly developed economies that have passed through a period of industrialization and are now based mainly on services (such as law, banking, sales, and accounting) and information (such as computer-related companies). majority culture The culture that sets most of the norms and standards and holds most of the positions of political, economic, intellectual, and media power; in America, the mostly White, middle-class majority in American society. society A group of people who interact in the course of sharing a common geographical area; may include a variety of cultures with different customs, religions, family traditions, and economic practices; different from a culture: members of a culture share a common way of life, whereas members of this may not. traditional cultures Refers to a culture that has maintained a way of life based on stable traditions passed from one generation to the next. These cultures do not generally value change but rather place a higher value on remaining true to cultural traditions; often, they are called preindustrial, which means that they technology and economic practices typical in developed countries are not widely used. developing countries Previously traditional, preindustrial cultures that become industrialized as a consequence of globalization. socioeconomic status Often used to refer to social class, which includes educational level, income level, and occupational status. For adolescents and emerging adults, because they have not yet reached the social class they will have as adults, this is usually used in reference to their parents levels of education, income, and occupation. young people Adolescents and emerging adults together. research design The plan for when and how to collect the data for a study. cross-sectional research Research in which data are collected on a sample of people at a single point in time. national survey Research technique which utilizes both stratified sampling and random sampling on a large scale. national survey Research technique which utilizes both stratified sampling and random sampling on a large scale. puberty The changes in physiology, anatomy, and physical functioning that develop a person into a mature adult biologically and prepare the body for sexual reproduction. endocrine system A network of glands in the body. Through hormones, the glands coordinate their functioning and affect the development and functioning of the body. hormones Chemicals, released by the glands of the endocrine system, that affect the development and functioning of the body, including development during puberty. hypothalamus The master gland, located in the lower part of the brain beneath the cortex, that affects a wide range of physiological and psychological functioning and stimulates and regulates the production of hormones by other glands, including the ones involved in the initiation of puberty. gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) Hormone released by the hypothalamus that causes gonadotropins to be released by the pituitary. leptin A protein, produced by fat cells, that signals the hypothalamus to initiate the hormonal changes of puberty. pituitary gland A gland about half an inch long located at the base of the brain that released gonadotropins as part of the bodys preparation for reproduction. gonadotropins hormones (FSH and LH) that stimulate the development of gametes. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Along with LH, stimulates the development of gametes and sex hormones in the ovaries and testicles. luteinizing hormone (LH) Along with FSH, stimulates the development of gametes and sex hormones in the ovaries and testicles. gametes Cells, distinctive to each sex, that are involved in reproduction (egg cells in the ovaries of the female and sperm in the testes of the male). gonads The ovaries and testicles. Also known as the sex glands. sex hormones Androgens and estrogens that cause the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics. estrogens The sex hormones that have especially high levels in females from puberty onward and are mostly responsible for female primary and secondary sex characteristics. androgens The sex hormones that have especially high levels in males from puberty onward and are mostly responsible for male primary and secondary sex characteristics. estradiol The estrogen most important in pubertal development among girls. testosterone The androgen most important in pubertal development among boys. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) The hormone that causes the adrenal glands to increase androgen production feedback look System of hormones involving the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the gonads, which monitors and adjusts the levels of sex hormones. set point Optimal level of sex hormones in the body. When this point is reached, responses in the glands of the feedback loop cause the production of sex hormones to be reduced. adolescent growth spurt The rapid increase in height that takes place at the beginning of puberty. peak height velocity The point at which the adolescent growth spurt is at its maximum rate. asynchronicity Uneven growth of different parts of the body during puberty. extremities The feet, hands, and head. vital capacity The amount of air that can be exhaled after a deep breath, which increases rapidly during puberty, especially for boys. maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) A measure of the ability of the body to take in oxygen and transport it to various organs; peaks in the early 20s. cardiac output A measure of the quantity of blood pumped by the heart. health promotion Efforts to reduce health problems in young people through encouraging changes in the behaviors that put young people at risk. primary sex characteristics The production of eggs and sperm and the development of the sex organs. secondary sex characteristics Bodily changes of puberty not directly related to reproduction. ovum Mature egg that develops from follicle in ovaries about every 28 days. spermarche Beginning of development of sperm in boys testicles at puberty. vulva External female sex organs, including the labia majora, the labia minora, and the clitoris. labia majora Part of vulva; Latin for large lips. labia minora Part of vulva; Latin for small lips. clitoris Part of vulva in which females sexual sensations are concentrated. breast buds The first slight enlargement of the breast in girls at puberty. areola Area surrounding the nipple on the breast; enlarges at puberty. secular trend A change in the characteristics of a population over time. reaction range Term meaning that genes establish a range of possible development and environment determines where development takes place within that range. incest taboo The prohibition on sexual relations between family members. Believed to be biologically based, as children born to closely related parents are at higher risk for genetic disorders. premenstrual syndrome (PMS) The combination of behavioral, emotional, and physical symptoms that occur in some females the week before menstruation. semenarche A males first ejaculation. age-graded Organized by age, for example in schools. nature-nurture debate Debate over the relative importance of biology and the environment in human development. theory of genotype>environment effects Theory that both genetics and environment make essential contributions to human development but are difficult to unravel because our genes actually influence the kind of environment we experience. passive genotype>environment effects Situation in biological families that parents provide both genes and environment for their children, making genes and environment difficult to separate in their effects on childrens development. evocative genotype>environment effects Occur when a persons inherited characteristics evoke responses from others in the environment. active genotype>environment effects Occur when people seek out environments that correspond to their genotypic characteristics. mikveh Among Orthodox Jewish women, a ritual bath taken a week after the conclusion of the menstrual period, believed to cleanse the impurity believed to be associated with menstruation. cognitive development Changes over time in how people think, how they solve problems, and how their capacities for memory and attention change. Jean Piaget Influential Swiss developmental psychologist, best known for his theories of cognitive and moral development stage A period in which abilities are organized in a coherent, interrelated way. mental structure The organization of cognitive abilities into a single pattern, such that thinking in all aspects of life is a reflection of that structure. cognitive-developmental approach Approach to understanding cognition that emphasizes the changes that take place at different ages. maturation Process by which abilities develop through genetically based development with limited influence from the environment. schemes A mental structure for organizing and interpreting information. assimilation The cognitive process that occurs when new information is altered to fit an existing scheme. accommodation The cognitive process that occurs when a scheme is changed to adapt to new information. sensorimotor stage Cognitive stage in first 2 years of life that involves learning how to coordinate the activities of the senses with motor activities. preoperational stage Cognitive stage from ages 2 to 7 during which the child becomes capable of representing the world symbolicallyfor example, through the use of languagebut is still very limited in ability to use mental operations. concrete operations Cognitive stage from age 7 to 11 in which children learn to use mental operations but are limited to applying them to concrete, observable situations rather than hypothetical situations. mental operations Cognitive activity involving manipulating and reasoning about objects. formal operations Cognitive stage from age 11 on up in which people learn to think systematically about possibilities and hypotheses. pendulum problem Piagets classic test of formal operations, in which persons are asked to figure out what determines the speed at which a pendulum sways from side to side. hypothetical-deductive reasoning Piagets term for the process by which the formal operational thinker systematically tests possible solutions to a problem and arrives at an answer that can be defended and explained. abstract thinking Thinking in terms of symbols, ideas, and concepts. complex thinking Thinking that takes into account multiple connections and interpretations, such as in the use of metaphor, satire, and sarcasm. metacognition The capacity for thinking about thinking that allows adolescents and adults to reason about their thought processes and monitor them. individual differences Approach to research that focuses on how individuals differ within a group, for example, in performance on IQ tests. postformal thinking Type of thinking beyond formal operations, involving greater awareness of the complexity of real-life situations, such as the use of pragmatism and reflective judgment. pragmatism Type of thinking that involves adapting logical thinking to the practical constraints of real-life situations. dialectical thought Type of thinking that develops in emerging adulthood, involving a growing awareness that most problems do not have a single solution and that problems must often be addressed with crucial pieces of information missing. reflective judgment The capacity to evaluate the accuracy and logical coherence of evidence and arguments. dualistic thinking Cognitive tendency to see situations and issues in polarized, absolute, black-and-white terms. multiple thinking Cognitive approach entailing recognition that there is more than one legitimate view of things and that it can be difficult to justify one position as the true or accurate one. relativism Cognitive ability to recognize the legitimacy of competing points of view but also compare the relative merits of competing views. commitment Cognitive status in which persons commit themselves to certain points of view they believe to be the most valid while at the same time being open to reevaluating their views if new evidence is presented to them. information-processing approach An approach to understanding cognition that seeks to delineate the steps involved in the thinking process and how each step is connected to the next. discontinuous A view of development as taking place in stages that are distinct from one another rather than as one gradual, continuous process. continuous A view of development as a gradual, steady process rather than as taking place in distinct stages. componential approach Description of the information-processing approach to cognition, indicating that it involves breaking down the thinking process into its various components. selective attention The ability to focus on relevant information while screening out information that is irrelevant. divided attention The ability to focus on more than one task at a time. short-term memory Memory for information that is the current focus of attention. long-term memory Memory for information that is committed to long-term storage, so that it can be drawn upon after a period when attention has not been focused on it. working memory An aspect of short-term memory that refers to where information is stored as it is comprehended and analyzed. mnemonic devices Memory strategies. automaticity Degree of cognitive effort a person needs to devote to processing a given set of information. reductionism Breaking up a phenomenon into separate parts to such an extent that the meaning and coherence of the phenomenon as a whole becomes lost. critical thinking Thinking that involves not merely memorizing information but analyzing it, making judgments about what it means, relating it to other information, and considering ways in which it might be valid or invalid. behavioral decision theory Theory of decision making that describes the decision-making process as including (1) identifying the range of possible choices; (2) identifying the consequences that would result from each choice; (3) evaluating the desirability of each consequence; (4) assessing the likelihood of each consequence; and (5) integrating this information. organizational core Term applied especially to cognitive development, meaning that cognitive development affects all areas of thinking, no matter what the topic. social cognition How people think about other people, social relationships, and social institutions perspective taking The ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of others. mutual perspective taking Stage of perspective taking, often found in early adolescence, in which persons understand that their perspective-taking interactions with others are mutual, in the sense that each side realizes that the other can take their perspective. social and conventional system perspective taking Realizing that the social perspectives of self and others are influenced not just by their interaction with each other but by their roles in the larger society. prosocial Promoting the well-being of others. theory of mind The ability to attribute mental states to ones self and others, including beliefs, thoughts, and feelings. adolescent egocentrism Type of egocentrism in which adolescents have difficulty distinguishing their thinking about their own thoughts from their thinking about the thoughts of others. imaginary audience Belief that others are acutely aware of and attentive to ones appearance and behavior. personal fable A belief in ones personal uniqueness, often including a sense of invulnerability to the consequences of taking risks. optimistic bias The tendency to assume that accidents, diseases, and other misfortunes are more likely to happen to other people than to ones self. psychometric approach Attempt to understand human cognition by evaluating cognitive abilities using intelligence tests Alfred Binet French psychologist who developed the first intelligence test in the early 20th century, which later became known as the Stanford-Binet. Stanford-Binet Widely used IQ test developed by Alfred Binet and revised by scholars at Stanford University intelligence quotient A measure of a persons intellectual abilities based on a standardized test. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) Intelligence test for children ages 6 to 16, with six Verbal and five Performance subtests. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) Intelligence test for persons ages 16 and up, with six Verbal and five Performance subtests. Verbal subtests In the Wechsler IQ tests, subtests that examine verbal abilities Performance subtests In the Wechsler IQ tests, subtests that examine abilities for attention, spatial perception, and speed of processing. relative performance In IQ tests, performance results compared to those of other persons of the same age. absolute performance In IQ tests, performance results compared to those of other persons, regardless of age. age norms Technique for developing a psychological test, in which a typical score for each age is established by testing a large random sample of people from a variety of geographical areas and social class backgrounds. median In a distribution of scores, the point at which half of the population scores above and half below. test-retest reliability Type of reliability that examines whether or not persons scores on one occasion are similar to their scores on another occasion. fluid intelligence Mental abilities that involve speed of analyzing, processing, and reacting to information. crystallized intelligence Accumulated knowledge and enhanced judgment based on experience. predictive validity In longitudinal research, the ability of a variable at Time 1 to predict the outcome of a variable at Time 2. transracial adoption The adoption of children of one race by parents of a different race. theory of multiple intelligences Howard Gardners theory that there are eight separate types of intelligence. fMRI A technique for measuring brain functioning during an ongoing activity. PET scans A technique for assessing ongoing brain functioning, in which a chemical that emits positrons is injected into the body, and detectors measure their activity levels in various parts of the brain. synapse The point of transmission between two nerve cells. neurons Cells of the nervous system, including the brain. overproduction or exuberance A rapid increase in the production of synaptic connections in the brain. gray matter The outer layer of the brain, where most of the growth in brain cells occurs during overproduction in adolescence. frontal lobes The part of the brain immediately behind the forehead. Known to be involved in higher brain functions such as planning ahead and analyzing complex problems. synaptic pruning Following overproduction, the process by which the number of synapses in the brain are reduced, making brain functioning faster and more efficient but less flexible. myelination Process by which myelin, a blanket of fat wrapped around the main part of the neuron, grows. Myelin serves the function of keeping the brains electrical signals on one path and increasing their speed. cerebellum A structure in the lower brain, well beneath the cortex, long thought to be involved only in basic functions such as movement, now known to be important for many higher functions as well, such as mathematics, music, decision making, and social skills. Vygotsky Russian psychologist who emphasized the cultural basis of cognitive development. zone of proximal development The gap between how competently a person performs a task alone and when guided by an adule or more competent peer. scaffolding The degree of assistance provided to the learner in the zone of proximal development, gradually decreasing as the learners skills develop. guided participation The teaching interaction between two people (often an adult and a child or adolescent) as they participate in a culturally valued activity. cultural psychology Approach to human psychology emphasizing that psychological functioning cannot be separated from the culture in which it takes place. cultural beliefs The predominant beliefs in a culture about right and wrong, what is most important in life, and how life should be lived. May also include beliefs about where and how life originated and what happens after death. symbolic inheritance The set of ideas and understandings, both implicit and explicit, about persons, society, nature, and divinity that serve as a guide to life in a particular culture. It is expressed symbolically through stories, songs, rituals, sacred objects, and sacred places. roles Defined social positions in a culture, containing specifications of behavior, status, and relations with others. Examples include gender, age, and social class. gender roles Cultural beliefs about the kinds of work, appearance, and other aspects of behavior that distinguish women from men. socialization The process by which people acquire the behaviors and beliefs of the culture in which they live. self-regulation The capacity for exercising self-control in order to restrain ones impulses and comply with social norms. role preparation An outcome of socialization that includes preparation for occupational roles, gender roles, and roles in institutions such as marriage and parenthood. Bat Mitzvah Jewish religious ritual for girls at age 13 that signifies the adolescents new responsibilities with respect to Jewish beliefs. Bar Mitzvah Jewish religious ritual for boys at age 13 that signifies the adolescents new responsibilities with respect to Jewish beliefs. sources of meaning The ideas and beliefs that people learn as a part of socialization, indicating what is important, what is to be values, what is to be lived for, and how to explain and offer consolation for the individuals mortality. interdependent self A conception of the self typically found in collectivistic cultures, in which the self is seen as defined by roles and relationships within the group. independent self A conception of the self typically found in individualistic cultures, in which the self is seen as existing independently of relations with others, with an emphasis on independence, individual freedoms, and individual achievements. broad socialization The process by which persons in an individualistic culture come to learn individualism, including values of individual uniqueness, independence, and self-expression. narrow socialization The process by which persons in a collectivistic culture come to learn collectivism, including values of obedience and conformity. custom complex A customary practice and the beliefs, values, sanctions, rules, motives, and satisfactions associated with it; that is, a normative practice in a culture and the cultural beliefs that provide the basis for that practice. ontogenetic Something that occurs naturally in the course of development as part of normal maturation; that is, it is driven by innate processes rather than by environmental stimulation or a specific cultural practice. first-generation families The status of persons who were born in one country and then immigrated to another. second-generation families The status of persons who were born in the country they currently reside in but whose parents were born in a different country. secular Based on nonreligious beliefs and values. social desirability The tendency for people participating in social science studies to report their behavior as they believe it would be approved by others rather than as it actually occurred. poetic-conventional faith Fowlers term for the stage of faith development most typical of early adolescence, in which people become more aware of the symbolism used in their faith and religious understanding becomes more complex in the sense hat early adolescents increasingly believe that there is more than one way of knowing the truth. individuating-reflective faith Fowlers term for the stage of faith most typical of late adolescence and emerging adulthood, in which people rely less on what their parents believed and develop a more individualized faith based on questioning their beliefs and incorporating their personal experience into their beliefs. heteronomous morality Piagets term for the period of moral development from about ages 4 to about 7, in which moral rules are viewed as having a sacred, fixed quality, handed down from figures of authority and alterable only by them. autonomous morality Piagets term for the period of moral development from about ages 10 to 12, involving a growing realization that moral rules are social conventions that can be changed if people decide they should be changed. preconventional reasoning In Kohlbergs theory of moral development, the level in which moral reasoning is based on perceptions of the likelihood of external rewards and punishments. conventional reasoning In Kohlbergs theory of moral development, the level of moral reasoning in which the person advocates the value of conforming to the moral expectations of others. What is right is whatever agrees with the rules established by tradition and by authorities. postconventional reasoning In Kohlbergs theory of moral development, the level in which moral reasoning is based on the individuals own independent judgments rather than on egocentric considerations or considerations of what others view as wrong or right. justice orientation A type of moral orientation that places a premium on abstract principles of justice, equality, and fairness. care orientation Gilligans term for the type of moral orientation that involves focusing on relationships with others as the basis for moral reasoning. worldview A set of cultural beliefs that explain what it means to be human, how human relations should be conducted, and how human problems should be addressed.